Acrylamide was first discovered in 1893 by Christian Moureau in Germany as a chemical compound. Acrylamide (2-propenamide) is the most active compound investigated in food contaminants to which heat effect is applied. Later, many researchers made publications reporting that they found acrylamide in varying amounts in various foodstuffs.
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<center><sup>CC *By Ben Mills , from [Wikimedia Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acrylamide-MW-2000-3D-balls.png)*</sup></center>
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The presence of chemical acrylamides in foods According to a press release by the Swedish National Food Administration (SNFA) and Stockholm University in April 2002, it was observed that "carbohydrates rich foods" were formed in high amounts of "acrylamide", a chemical substance that has the potential to produce cancer in various fried and baked foods. The International Center for Cancer Research (IARC, 1994) classifies acrylamide as "2A Group (Possible Carcinogenic to Humans)."
Acrylamide has two forms including monomeric and polymeric. Smoking, industrial applications and thermally processed foods are places where acrylamide can form. Acrylamide is one of the substances that have adverse effects on human health and can form in the food as a result of heat treatment. Acrylamide is a water-soluble vinyl monomer used in the synthesis of polyacrylamides containing polar functional groups with different physical and chemical properties. This monomer is an amide containing an unsaturated double bond which, when in liquid state, appears like a white crystal and is stable at room temperature. It is odorless and has high water solubility. It can polymerize immediately when melted or exposed to oxidative agents. The melting temperature is 84.56 °C and the boiling temperature is 1256 °C. The polymeric form is a unique compound with the reason that it is a waterproof gel.
Polyacrylamide (industrial form) is widely used in various chemical and environmental applications, such as in the treatment of drinking and waste water, in soap making, in the recovery of enriched petroleum, in the production of plastics, in the cleaning of particles and other impurities, in the production of adhesives in paper and cosmetics and also in the electrophoresis of macromolecules. The monomeric form of acrylamide has been shown to cause toxic effects on the nervous system, to have an anemic effect, and to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals. It is possible that the levels of acrylamide in the diet are higher than those of other known carcinogens.
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#### <center> Mechanism of Acrylamide Formation </center>
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Acrylamide is a small, simple but highly reactive molecule. For the initiation of acrylamide formation, the ambient temperature must exceed 100 °C. It has been observed that acrylamide is formed by reaction with specific amino acid reduced sugar during the formation of browning (Maillard reaction) at about 120 °C. Acrylamide formation is known to be influenced by cooking time, nutritional source, shape of cooked food and baking heat. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have reported that high-temperature processed or cooked foods can contain acrylamide in a remarkable manner, which could pose a risk for human health. When the ambient temperature is raised to 180 °C, acrylamide formation reaches its highest level. Acrylamide is not found naturally, but in the baked products it is up to a few ppm (mg / kg). Data on the analysis of the acrylamide content of foods are limited, but studies have shown that acrylamide is generally fried (potato, chips), baked cereal based products (eg crackers, biscuits, breakfast cereals, biscuits, bread), it has been reported that it occurs in high concentrations in the potato and it occurs in low concentrations in some other foods such as heat treated coffee, and in the raw and boiled foods, acrylamide does not occur. So far, there is no evidence that you have boiled acrylamide and cooked in microwaves. It is reported that the highest acrylamide concentration is in the chips products.
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<center><sup>*By Rajatkrpal [CC BY-SA 4.0 ](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0), from Wikimedia Commons*</sup></center>
Maillard Reaction is a kind of nonenzymatic browning, such as caramelization. The Maillard reaction to heat-treated foods may have associated aftertaste flavor and color formation with acrylamide formation under certain conditions. It can affect health in a negative way and can have a toxic effect on the liver. In some cases, such as sterilized dairy products, the formation of the Maillard Reaction is not desirable because of the formation of some taste compounds. Excessive heat can cause quality loss as it changes the structure, taste and odor compounds. From amino acids, lysine reacts more rapidly with two amino groups, causing dark color formation. The loss of essential amino acids such as lysine by the Maillard reaction can significantly affect the biological value of proteins in foods. When the amino acids glucone, glycine and cysteine or methionine are heated to 185 °C, no acrylamide is formed (formation limit, 0.5 mg / mol). Glutamine and aspartic acid produced only acrylamide in trace amounts when exposed to heat (0.5-1 mg mol<sup>-1</sup>).
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<center><sup>Source:*[Wikimedia Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maillard_reaction_asparagin.png)*</sup></center>
In the extensive [HEATOX](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15759747) study conducted in many parts of the world where nutrient toxins caused by heat, identification, characterization and risk minimization were investigated, it was reported that 800 compounds were identified as Maillard reaction or lipid oxidation. According to the study, nearly 40 of them are carcinogenic.
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#### <center>Well, What Does The Acrylamide Mean On The Foods?</center>
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Data on acrylamide content in foods are limited. The data concerning the acrylamide content of food or food groups that meet the rest of the energy supply is rather limited. There is a certain amount of data in many countries. These foods meet only a fraction of the average energy intake in developed countries. The acrylamide content of some foods (potato crisps, breakfast cereals, etc.) is generally determined, but the factor that determines this diversity is not clearly understood. Due to this incomplete data, the intake of acrylamide by daily diets can not be fully determined. For this reason, the exact amount of acrylamide intake can not be predicted exactly.
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<center><sup>Source:*[Pixabay](https://pixabay.com/en/potato-fries-fast-food-salty-3245121/)*</sup></center>
The foods that are most exposed to acrylamide are potatoes, grains and gheders. Potatoes and cereals are essential nutrients and provide the highest levels of carbohydrates and some protein in the diet. Coffee is not an essential nutrient, it is the drink that is consumed most because of its flavor, hedonic value and caffeine. The formation of acrylamide is a consequence of the Maillard reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars. This precursor in nutrients that affect concentration thus affects the final concentration of acrylamide in the feed, which is the processing conditions during food preparation and storage. The presence and concentration of precursor molecules such as asparagine and reducing sugars affect acrylamide formation. This affects the relative concentrations of molecules and the heat, heat density and water activity used in processing technologies to form acrylamide. Asparagine concentrations and reducing sugars for all three crops are affected by growing conditions (season, irrigation and fertilization), harvesting time and storage conditions. The multiplicity of reducing sugars and the concentration of asparagine for cereals influence the formation of acrylamide. Conversely, asparagine is greater in the potato and reducing sugar concentration affects the formation of acrylamide.
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#### <center>Impact on Human Body</center>
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Studies on human subjects have provided limited and inconsistent evidence of the risk of developing cancer. However, studies on laboratory animals have shown that exposure to acrylamide via the diet increases the likelihood of gene mutations and tumor formation in various organs. Studies have shown that acrylamide is rapidly absorbed in the marbles of experimental animals and spreads to various tissues including the fetus and is intensively metabolized. One of the main metabolites of this process, glycidamide, is the most likely cause of gene mutations and tumors in animals. In addition to cancer formation, animal studies show that the toxic effect of acrylamide is directed to the nervous system, and that toxic damage is constantly increased in the case of continuous exposure, affecting the nervous system. At a later stage, this can lead to degenerations in the brain's learning, memory and grip regions. It also has negative effects on prenatal and postnatal development and male reproductive system.
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#### <center>How Do We Stay Away?</center>
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Balanced nutrition can help to reduce acrylamide uptake (such as meat, fish, vegetables, fruit) in a wider variety of food. Studies show that selection of ingredients in cooked meals and paying attention to cook cooking temperatures affect the amount of acrylamide.
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<center><sup>Source:*[Pixabay](https://pixabay.com/en/frog-cooking-love-valentine-s-day-927769/)*</sup></center>
It may also be helpful to take the following precautions,
*Baking:* Long-term yeast fermentation reduces the content of asparagine in the dough that is baked in the oven, thus reducing acrylamide formation.
*Roasting:* Not when coffee is brewed at home or at the restaurant, but when coffee beans are roasted, acrylamide is formed in the cup. Scientists have not yet found an effective method to reduce acrylamide formation in corn.
*Frying:* This method causes the highest acrylamide formation. To reduce the formation of acrylamide during frying, fry at lower temperatures and avoid making the food too hard or burning.
*Grill:* Consumers are often advised to turn the face of food during the food grill to prevent carbonization.
If carbonization occurs, just remove burned parts before eating.
*Boiling / Microwave cooking:* Boiled potatoes or whole baked potatoes with microwave ovens ("oven potatoes in microwave") do not contain high acrylamide.
Generally, when cooking is done for longer or at higher temperatures, more acrylamide is formed.
Instead of frying the bread until it is dark brown, frying until light brown color reduces the amount of acrylamide. Burned parts should not be eaten as there are typically places containing the most acrylamide.
When cooking ready-to-cook potato products cooks up to a golden color instead of a brown color helps to reduce acrylamide formation. Burned parts tend to contain more acrylamide.
Storing potatoes in the refrigerator can increase the amount of acrylamide during cooking. For this reason, the consumers are required to eat potatoes outside the fridge, it is suggested to keep them in a dark, cool place like a cupboard.
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##### References
<sup>- Anonymous, 2002. What is acrylamide? Food standards agency study of acrylamide in food background information and research findings press briefing. www.food.gov.uk</sup>
<sup>- Zhang, Y., Zhang, G., Zhang, Y., 2005. Occurrence and analytical methods of acrylamide in heattreated foods. Review and recent developments. Journal of Chromatography A 1075:1–21</sup>
<sup>- Vattem, D.A., Shetty, K., 2003. Acrylamide in food: a model for mechanism of formation and its reduction. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 4: 331-338</sup>
<sup>- Kaplan, O., Kaya, G., Ozcan, C, Ince, M., Yaman, M., 2009. Acrylamide concentrations in grilled foodstuffs of Turkish kitchen by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Microchemical Journal 93: 173–179</sup>
<sup>- Klaunig, J.E., 2008. Acrylamide carcinogenicity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56: 6162–6166.</sup>
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