<p>Greetings to all my readers. Thanks for the constant support and motivations. I will start today's post by explaining more on the learned responses such as habituation and conditioning. Afterwards, I will discuss complex learning, the work of Wolfgang Kohler and Jane Goodhall. Finally, I will give an exposition on observational learning and the human behaviour.</p><p><i>So, sit back and let's roll.......<span lang=""><br></span></i></p><h2><span lang="">LEARNED RESPONSES<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">In a simple classification of learned
responses. The following section looks in more detail at some of these
responses.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h3><span lang="">Habituation<o:p></o:p></span></h3><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Habituation can be described as the process
whereby an animal becomes accustomed to non-threatening environmental stimuli
and learn to ignore them. This learning process occurs with most effect in the
first few weeks of life; it is part of the socialisation and survival of most mammals.
Wolf cubs, for example, must learn to recognise other wolves in their pack as
non-threatening, but still be aware of the danger of wolves from other packs or
from other animals such as snakes. They become habituated to other members of
the pack when this response is at its most potent. After a few weeks, the
response is reduced just as they start to venture out beyond the safety of
their own parents and group. They cannot become habituated as easily and so are
wary and fearful of things they have not come across before.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Classical_Conditioning_Diagram.png/266px-Classical_Conditioning_Diagram.png" style="width: 266px; float: left;" class="note-float-left"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning#/media/File:Classical_Conditioning_Diagram.png" target="_blank"><sup> A diagram demonstrating unconditioned, neutral, and conditioned stimuli as well as unconditioned and conditioned responses in Ivan Pavlov's research on digestion. Salehi.s, CC BY-SA 4.0</sup></a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Habituation is also important for domestic
animals, such as the dog. This can be illustrated by these three examples of
what can happen to a puppy in its first 10 weeks of life, and how this affects
how it develops into an adult:<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">A puppy is kept apart from its mother, given
adequate food and shelter, but little contact with other dogs, or with humans.
At 6 months, this dog would be fearful of people and new situations, and would
not interact well with other dogs, even its own siblings.<o:p></o:p></span></p><ul><li><span lang="">A puppy is kept with its mother and siblings
for 10 weeks, with regular human contact and food and shelter. The dog at 6
months is likely to be well adjusted; able to interact well with other dogs,
and be a good family pet.</span></li><li>A puppy exposed to cruel treatment, poor
conditions and physical violence in its first few weeks tends to become
withdrawn and unpredictable. It may attack a person making a friendly approach.</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">These are examples only, but they indicate the
importance of habituation in early life. Manipulation of this response can, however,
be useful in some circumstances. Dogs bred for future use as police or army dogs
are often exposed to loud bangs during their first weeks of life; this can enable
the dog to become ‘bomb-proof’ as an adult dog, able to cope with loud, frightening
conditions such as a riot, without panicking or endangering the safety of the
public.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h3><span lang="">Conditioning<o:p></o:p></span></h3><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Conditioning is another type of learning. An
animal is able to detect a stimulus and then to predict what is likely to
happen, simply because it has happened several times before. The animal
associates two events that occur together. For example, cattle respond to the
farmer entering the field in a tractor, but ignore other people with other vehicles.
They associate the farmer and tractor with food.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">In his original experiments on conditioning,
the Russian physiologist Ivan Palor (1849-1936) recorded saliva produced by
hungry dogs that were given food. Pavlov delivered a neutral stimulus, the
sound of a bell, at the same time as the food. The dogs began to connect the
neutral stimulus with food, and after a short time, the animals would salivate
at the sound of the bell whether food appeared or not. We now call this type of
learning <b>classical</b> <b>conditioning</b> and the response it produces a <b>conditioned</b>
<b>reflex</b>. It is found in all complex animals.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Since Pavlov’s initial research, many
different physiological responses such as fear, dislike, love, hunger and
sleepiness have been conditioned in response to a wide variety of neutral
stimuli.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">The other type of conditioning, <b>operant</b>
(or <b>instrumental</b>) <b>conditioning</b>, was first described by B. F.
Skinner. Operant conditioning is learning as a result of consequences. B. F
Skinner invented a tool to study the animal behaviour called the Skinner box.
This is a box that contains one or more levers that an animal such as a rat can
press. In one of Skinner’s experiments a starved rat was introduced into the
box. When the lever was pressed by the rat a small pellet of food dropped onto
the food tray for it to eat. The rat soon learned that when it pressed the
lever, food appeared. This is a practical demonstration of operant conditioning
and learning by reinforcement.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Humans, and other animals, tend to prefer
behaviours that are followed by some type of <b>reinforcement</b>, and they
avoid behaviours that are followed by some type of punishment. Classical
conditioning occurs when an animal learns to associate a ‘neutral’ stimulus
with an important one: the dog associates the bell ringing with the arrival of
food. Operant (instrumental) conditioning occurs when an animal learns to
associate an action with a ‘punishment’ or a ‘reward’: a bird learns that
eating a particular butterfly makes it sick. Reinforcement can be either
positive – getting something good – or negative – losing something bad.
Reinforcement can occur only sometimes in connection with a particular
behaviour (partial reinforcement), or every time that behaviour is followed
(continuous reinforcement). Continuous reinforcement is generally the most
effective at bringing about learning.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Punishment can be effective in reducing
unwanted behaviours, particularly if it is administered soon after the unwanted
behaviour, consistently, and either not too weakly or extremely in relation to
the behaviour (i.e. the punishment must fit the crime). However, too much
reliance on punishment as a tool to modify behaviour can be counterproductive
in the long run because it doesn’t teach new behaviours (it only eliminates old
ones), it models aggression and it creates a negative association between the
person doing the punishing and the punishment itself.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><span lang="">COMPLEX LEARNING<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Not all learning is the result of conditioning
or habituation. When a banana is left just out of reach outside its cage, a
chimp might use a nearby bamboo pole to pull in the fruit. Or, if a banana is
tied to the branch of a tree, again out of reach, the chimp may eventually
stack boxes one on top of another and climb up to reach it. This behaviour
appears to involve reasoning and we call it insight learning. If one chimp
watches the behaviour of another, and then copies it, this is observational
learning.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">It is well known that birds and mammals form
an attachment to people or animals that they come into contact with shortly
after hatching or birth. This behaviour is called imprinting and it allows a
young animal to learn the characteristics of its parents. This is particularly
important where young animals need to learn quickly who their parents are.
Young ducks, for example, follow their parents to the water soon after
hatching.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><img src="https://res.cloudinary.com/drrz8xekm/image/upload/v1583764043/lqovdqw2ej1y3uh5ggmd.jpg" data-filename="lqovdqw2ej1y3uh5ggmd" style="width: 527.5px;"><span lang=""><o:p><br></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/duck-wild-mallard-animals-feathers-1463317/" target="_blank"><sup>Image of duck by Patou Ricard from Pixabay</sup></a><span lang=""><o:p><br></o:p></span></p><h3><span lang="">Social behaviour<o:p></o:p></span></h3><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">There is safety in numbers. Schools of fish are
less vulnerable to predators than single fish: large numbers tend to confuse a
predator. Living in a group may also give benefits in terms of feeding success
– for example, flocks of birds eat better than single individuals because group
members can ‘share’ tasks such as keeping a lookout when feeding. Birds such as
geese are also more likely to find food when there are many pairs of eyes to
look for it. We call this type of group behaviour social behaviour.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">In a society, individuals cooperate. Animals
take on individual tasks, a practice called division of labour, and there are
complex systems of communication involving recognition of either family or
other species members. Social organisation can range from the simple
co-operation between a male and a female during mating to the complex societies
of insects and primates.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Group living also has its costs. In a large bird
colony, for example, males run the risk of females mating with other males.
Females run the risk of mate desertion. In mixed-species flocks such as Australian
finches, there can be increased competition for food and in any large group
there is always the risk of contracting disease or parasites.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">&nbsp;</span></p><h2><span lang="">THE WORK OF WOLFGANG KOHLER AND JANE GOODHALL<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><b>Kohler's chimps</b><span lang="">: A
hundred years ago, people thought that only human beings made and used tools, but
we now know that many animals, including birds, make and use tools, One of the
first scientists to show this was Wolfgang Kohler, a psychologist who studied
learning in chimpanzees. Kohler, who trained at the University of Berlin, was working
at a primate research facility maintained by the Prussian Academy of Sciences
in the Canary Islands when the First World War broke out. Marooned there, he
had at his disposal a large outdoor pen and nine chimpanzees of various ages.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Kohler decided to make the best of this situation,
and set up a series of experiments to test his theory that chimps were capable of
insight learning, just as humans are.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Kohler worked mainly with four chimps; Chica,
Grande, Konsul and Sultan. He placed a chimp in an enclosed play area. Somewhere
out of reach he placed a prize, such as a bunch of bananas. To get the bananas,
the chimp would have to use an object as a tool. The objects in the play area
included sticks of different lengths and wooden boxes. He discovered that chimpanzees
were very good at using tools. They used sticks as rakes to pull in bananas, and
as clubs to bring down fruit that was hanging overhead. Sometimes they stood
long sticks on end and quickly climbed up the 7 metres and grabbed the bananas before
the stick fell over. The chimpanzees also learned to use boxes as a stepladder,
dragging them under the hung bananas and even stacking several boxes on top of
one another. Kohler concluded that his chimps were showing insight learning –
they were looking at a problem, at what was available to solve it, and then
thinking up a strategy before carrying it out.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><img src="https://res.cloudinary.com/drrz8xekm/image/upload/v1583764424/ieyaki0893siup3klyes.jpg" data-filename="ieyaki0893siup3klyes" style="width: 527.5px;"><span lang=""><o:p><br></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/chimpanzee-mammal-dangerous-871296/" target="_blank"><sup>Image of a Chimpanzee by Marcel Langthim from Pixabay</sup></a><span lang=""><o:p><br></o:p></span></p><h3><span lang="">Jane Goodall<o:p></o:p></span></h3><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Another scientist, Jane Goodall, has since observed
chimpanzees making and using tools in the wild. As a young woman, Goodall
worked on a project in Africa, under the direction of Louis Leakey, the famous
archaeologist and anthropologist. As part of this study, she observed a chimp
pick a blade of grass and carefully trim the edges. The chimp then stuck the
grass into a termite mound, left it there for a moment, and pulled it out.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Termites swarmed over the blade of grass. He
then ate the termites clinging to the grass blade, which had been made into a
‘fishing rod’ for termites.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><span lang="">Observational learning<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">One advantage of living in groups is that
animals gain information from one another. Young animals, such as juvenile
mammals and birds, learn skills from their parents by watching and observing.
On the Japanese island of Koshima, macaque monkeys learned to wash dirty sweet
potatoes originally provided for them by researchers in the early 1950s. This
behaviour was passed on from parents to offspring and was observed by other
members of the troop. After a few months, all the monkeys were washing their
potatoes in the sea. Nearly 50 years later, this colony of monkeys still wash
their potatoes even though they are not given dirty potatoes any more.
Scientists think they like the salty taste.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Closer to home, blue tits and great tits have
learned the ‘trick’ of opening milk bottle tops to get at the cream inside.
These birds already had the habit of hammering and pecking at nuts with their
beak. It was therefore a relatively small step to use the same technique on
attractive, shiny bottle tops. This behaviour did not spread randomly but
seemed to spread from certain focal points, suggesting that birds learned by
watching each other.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">In both these examples, <b>observational</b> <b>learning</b>
occurred. The behaviour spread rapídly through the population until it became
the norm. We call this phenomenon cultural transmission.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><span lang="">Human behaviour<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Consider two examples of human behaviour:<o:p></o:p></span></p><ul><li><span lang="">If children see pictures of small children’s
faces and adult faces they prefer the adult face. A change in preference occurs
at 12 to 14 years of age in girls when they express a preference for baby
pictures. Boys display the same trend two years later.</span></li><li>If we sit too close to a stranger in a library,
then we tend to use physical ‘barriers’ such as books or bags to keep the stranger
at a distance. If this person gets too close we often move seats.</li></ul><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">These are typical of the types of behaviour
studied in human ethology – the biology of human behaviour, It asks the question
‘why do we behave the way we do?<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">Ethologists view human behaviour in the same
way as that of other animals: they think it is adaptive and has evolved to suit
its purpose. In the two examples above, there is strong evidence to link
children’s behaviour with child rearing and adult behaviour with protection.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Adult-baby-bed-225744.jpg/640px-Adult-baby-bed-225744.jpg" style="width: 527.5px;"><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; "><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior#/media/File:Adult-baby-bed-225744.jpg" target="_blank"><sup>An adult and infant. Wayne Evans, CC0</sup></a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">One goal of human ethologists is to look for
patterns of behaviour shared by all peoples of the world. These are seen in
examples of behaviour which involve body movements, rather than speech.
Gestures such as smiling and raising the eyebrows, and behaviours such as
grooming and hugging seem to be common to all human societies.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">We all think that we have a free choice in our
behaviour, but do we really? We may be under the control of our genes or be
shaped by our surroundings. There is evidence for both points of view.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><span lang="">SUMMARY<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="">After going through all my posts on this topic starting from <a href="https://www.steemstem.io/#!/@loveforlove/senses-and-behaviour-1582106948" target="_blank">SENSES AND BEHAVIOUR: 1</a>, <a href="https://www.steemstem.io/#!/@loveforlove/senses-and-behaviour-1582454523" target="_blank">2</a>, <a href="https://www.steemstem.io/#!/@loveforlove/senses-and-behaviour-1583058322" target="_blank">3</a> and this final post, you should know and understand the
following:<o:p></o:p></span></p><ul><li><span lang="">A sensation is a general state of awareness
of a stimulus; perception involves the interpretation of sensory information. A
receptor is a biological transducer: it converts energy from one type of system
(e.g. chemical) to another system (e.g. electrical). A receptor is classified
according to the type of stimulus it receives (e.g. photoreceptor), its
location (e.g. interoceptor) or its level of complexity.</span></li><li>The Pacinian corpuscle is a simple receptor
in the skin that detects pressure and vibration. The eyeball contains three
outer layers, the sclera, choroid and retina. Incoming light rays are refracted
(bent) by the cornea and by the lens of the eye. Accommodation is the ability
to focus the eye automatically, to see near and distant objects. Rod and cone
cells are stimulated by the effects of light on two pigments, rhodopsin and iodopsin.
Breakdown of these compounds alters the electrical properties of the cell
membranes.</li><li>There are three types of cone cell pigment.
Each responds to a different range of wavelengths of light. Humans have
trichromatic vision: our cone cells detect three colours: blue, green and red. Stereoscopic
vision enables us to perceive depth and distance. The human ear has two main
functions, to detect sound and to maintain balance.</li><li>Ethology is the study of animal behaviour
under natural conditions. Patterns of behaviour are controlled by the nervous system;
simple behaviours include taxes and kineses. A taxis is an orientation response
related to the direction of the stimulus. A positive taxis describes movement
towards a stimulus; a negative taxis, movement away from a stimulus.</li><li>A kinesis is an orientation behaviour where
the response relates not to the direction of the stimulus but to its intensity.
Instinct or innate behaviour is unlearned. It has survival value. There are
three main types of learning: Habituation (learning not to respond), conditioning
(associating a particular stimulus with a particular response), and complex
learning.</li><li>Animals live in social groups for a number of
reasons, including protection, food capture, reproduction and shelter. They
show co-operative behaviour. Behaviour can be passed on from parents to offspring
genetically (innate behaviour, e.g. fixed action patterns) and culturally (e.g.
observational learning).</li></ul><h4><span lang="">Thanks for reading.<o:p></o:p></span></h4><h2><span lang="">REFERENCES<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/behavioral-biology/animal-behavior/a/learned-behaviors" target="_blank">https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/behavioral-biology/animal-behavior/a/learned-behaviors</a><span lang="">&nbsp;</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-conditioned-response-2794974" target="_blank">https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-conditioned-response-2794974</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.thefreedictionary.com/learned+response#:~:text=Noun,responses%20have%20slowed%20with%20age%22" target="_blank">https://www.thefreedictionary.com/learned+response#:~:text=Noun,responses%20have%20slowed%20with%20age%22</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-habituation.html" target="_blank">https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-habituation.html</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/habituation" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/habituation</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation" target="_blank">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-habituation-2795233" target="_blank">https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-habituation-2795233</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html" target="_blank">https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/conditioning-intro" target="_blank">https://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/conditioning-intro</a><span lang="">&nbsp;</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/conditioning#:~:text=Conditioning%2C%20in%20physiology%2C%20a%20behavioral,reward%20for%20a%20desired%20response." target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/science/conditioning#:~:text=Conditioning%2C%20in%20physiology%2C%20a%20behavioral,reward%20for%20a%20desired%20response.</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/using-concept-maps-enhance-students/4884" target="_blank">https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/using-concept-maps-enhance-students/4884</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_413" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_413</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/social-psychology-2/social-behaviour/social-behaviour-meaning-bases-and-kinds/1310" target="_blank">http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/social-psychology-2/social-behaviour/social-behaviour-meaning-bases-and-kinds/1310</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/environmental-studies/social-behaviour" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/environmental-studies/social-behaviour</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/social-behavior" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/social-behavior</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior#:~:text=Social%20behavior%20is%20behavior%20among,an%20interaction%20among%20those%20members." target="_blank">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior#:~:text=Social%20behavior%20is%20behavior%20among,an%20interaction%20among%20those%20members.</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfgang-Kohler" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfgang-Kohler</a><span lang="">&nbsp;</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" target="_blank" style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-size: 1rem;">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler</a></p><p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/insight-learning-wolfgang-kohler-theory-definition-examples.html#:~:text=In%20the%201920s%2C%20German%20psychologist,which%20he%20called%20insight%20learning." target="_blank">https://study.com/academy/lesson/insight-learning-wolfgang-kohler-theory-definition-examples.html#:~:text=In%20the%201920s%2C%20German%20psychologist,which%20he%20called%20insight%20learning.</a><span lang=""><br></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 1rem;">&nbsp;</span><br></p>