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body | "@@ -114317,12 +114317,41324 @@
contained.%0A
+%0A### Cell structure%0A%3EFurther information: Animal cell and Plant cell%0A%0AEvery cell is enclosed within a cell membrane that separates its cytoplasm **%5Ball the material inside a eukaryotic cell except the cell nucleus%5D** from the extracellular space **%5Boutside of the cells%5D**.%5B43%5D A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer **%5Btwo layers of lipids%5D**, including cholesterols **%5Ba type of lipid%5D** that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. Cell membranes are semipermeable, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as ions.%5B44%5D Cell membranes also contains **%5Bsic%5D** membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins that go across the membrane serving as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell.%5B45%5D Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion **%5Binteract and attach to neighboring cells%5D**, storing electrical energy **%5Bby maintaining a voltage or electric charge difference between the inside and outside of the cell%5D** and cell signalling **%5Bability to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself%5D** and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall **%5Bsurrounds cell membrane of some cells%5D**, glycocalyx **%5Bgenerally fuzzy hair-like attachments surrounding some cell%5D**, and cytoskeleton **%5Bprovides shape and mechanical resistance to deformation within and surrounding a cell%5D**.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/243ByUEoB4X3Wmrvs9DW1v9otGwcN58edHFAMmA5RYEhRbpqX6aT2KyYtw1N6W68qVF8d.png)%0A %0AStructure of an animal cell depicting various organelles **%5Bsubunit within a cell, analogous to organs in a body%5D**%0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** Diagram of a typical animal cell. Organelles are labelled as follows:%0A%3E%0A%3E**(1)** Nucleolus **%5Blargest structure in the nucleus, produces ribosomes%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23uQvfEh6Wt9c164yVwqZ8PoRM2QZ6Fr7ZwjxjiB5v964WJLbeDFqSNMnzfqq6BEfJLVx.png)%0A%0A%3EElectron micrograph of part of a HeLa cell.%0A%3E%0A%3EHeLa is an immortal cell line used in scientific research. It is the oldest and most commonly used human cell line.%5B1%5D The line is named after and derived from cervical cancer cells taken on February 8, 1951,%5B2%5D from Henrietta Lacks, a 31-year-old African-American mother of five, who died of cancer on October 4, 1951.%5B3%5D The cell line was found to be remarkably durable and prolific, which allows it to be used extensively in scientific study.%5B4%5D%5B5%5D%0A%3E%0A%3EThe cells from Lacks's cancerous cervical tumor were taken without her knowledge or consent, which was common practice at the time.%5B6%5D Cell biologist George Otto Gey found that they could be kept alive,%5B7%5D and developed a cell line. Previously, cells cultured from other human cells would only survive for a few days. Cells from Lacks's tumor behaved differently.%0A%3E%0A%3EAn immortalised cell line is a population of cells from a multicellular organism which would normally not proliferate indefinitely but, due to mutation **%5Balteration of a nucleotide sequence of a genome%5D**, have evaded normal cellular senescence **%5Bcessation of cell division%5D** and instead can keep undergoing division. The cells can therefore be grown for prolonged periods in vitro **%5Bin the lab; in vivo = in living organism%5D**. The mutations required for immortality can occur naturally or be intentionally induced for experimental purposes. %0A%3E%0A%3E**(2)** Nucleus **%5Bcontains all of the cell%E2%80%99s genome except for mitochondrial DNA (and plastid DNA in plants)%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23uQk8y3pKqg53vPLhWHmEsrh91v8rDLGWRHjv7fC4GfNaRFjhb5nhz44ysRKVwfAwLrm.png)%0A %0A%3EAn electron micrograph of a cell nucleus, showing the darkly stained nucleolus%0A%3E%0A%3EA plastid is a membrane-bound organelle%5B1%5D found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(3)** Ribosome **%5Bfound floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (dots as part of 5), synthesizes protein from mRNA (messenger RNA)%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23tH7SWsmcJeMYxFp2X8Efer1TxNCm7caCJUuAicCs984rWG92DYQrjwFJdBC3mkUwREG.png)%0A %0A%3E%5B**Figure**%5D(https://bioinfopakistan.ucoz.com/news/polyribosomes/2011-06-20-95)%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23yxATF8n4k3PnxnFzAnEA2DhbvqpPh5UCs3m8ph961NHKScNoV2hNVLwnvUs67n1T2kb.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure 1%5D(http://book.bionumbers.org/what-is-faster-transcription-or-translation/):** Electron microscopy image of simultaneous transcription **%5Bcopying segment of DNA into RNA%5D** and translation **%5Bsynthetize mRNA into specific amino acid chain%5D**. The image shows bacterial DNA and its associated mRNA transcripts, each of which is occupied by ribosomes. (Adapted from O. L. Miller et al., Science 169:392, 1970.): %0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23sxE2S143fQG9pANGmEouDJUJcTazt4oq4UtrGzM2XVMBxb24XHPJgaRGedrWH9dumUw.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure 3.4.13.4.1%5D(https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%253A_Biology_%2528Kimball%2529/03%253A_The_Cellular_Basis_of_Life/3.04%253A_Ribosomes):** An electron micrograph of polysomes **%5Bgroup of ribosomes%5D** held together with mRNA. Image courtesy of Alexander Rich. %0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/Eo6Mo29QA7kyu8p7qRzRevRqmjYtQKEHzKY3jvAVNi5yVeMNe4b4iWig5o2wncJaGSK.png) %0A%0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/864710/view/rough-endoplasmic-reticulum-with-ribosomes-tem):** Rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes on the surface (mammal neuron, CNS **%5Bcentral nervous system%5D**), transmission electron micrograph (TEM).%0A%3E%0A%3EA neuron or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that communicates with other cells via specialized connections called synapses.%0A%3E%0A%3EIn biology, the nervous system is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(4)** Vesicle **%5Bstructure consisting of liquid or cytoplasm enclosed by a lipid bilayer%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23qqhgKYmoCNEPUqA2FXcCyYYtQ55A7bvBJLkSuYHAJUXe6hxxbNGEkts2ybaqrU86Xyb.png)%0A %0A%3ESarfus **%5Boptical microscope imaging technique%5D** image of lipid vesicles.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(5)** Rough endoplasmic reticulum **%5BRER, synthesizes certain lipids such as cholesterol, contains ribosomes%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/EonkaC5GnyTUkgmwtWGugX4pf8PGcGXbvfpgGoFHpvqDVuTzQfayiNg8EeNPH3pHpkm.png)%0A %0A%3EMicrograph of rough endoplasmic reticulum network around the nucleus (shown in lower right-hand side of the picture). Dark small circles in the network are mitochondria **%5Band possibly other organelles%5D**.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(6)** Golgi apparatus (or %22Golgi body%22) **%5Bpackages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before they are sent to their destination%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/EoEqVWGhEn1HmPWfYJNfMmEcoAqsPZ9jvfP45RKM15m4VUHzemUgZ7UXV1UNvm8t41X.png)%0A %0A%3EMicrograph of Golgi apparatus, visible as a stack of semicircular black rings near the bottom. Numerous circular vesicles can be seen in proximity to the organelle.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(7)** Cytoskeleton **%5Bcomplex dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments (long chains of protein) present in the cytoplasm of all cells%5D**%0A%3E%0A%3EIn eukaryotes, it is composed of three main components, microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules, and these are all capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.%0A%3E%0A%3EMicrofilaments, also called actin filaments, are protein filaments in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that form part of the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments are usually about 7 nm in diameter and made up of two strands of actin. %0A%3E%0A%3EActin is a family of globular **%5Bspherical%5D** multi-functional proteins that form microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and the thin filaments in muscle fibrils %5BRod-like organelle of a muscle cell%5D. It can be present as either a free monomer called G-actin (globular) or as part of a linear polymer microfilament called F-actin (filamentous).%0A%3E%0A%3EIntermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal structural components found in the cells of vertebrates, and many invertebrates. Intermediate filaments are composed of a family of related proteins sharing common structural and sequence features. The diameter of intermediate filaments **%5B10 nm%5D** is now commonly compared to actin microfilaments (7 nm) and microtubules (25 nm). %0A%3E%0A%3EMicrotubules are polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. The outer diameter of a microtubule is between 23 and 27 nm%5B2%5D while the inner diameter is between 11 and 15 nm.%0A%3E%0A%3ETubulin in molecular biology can refer either to the tubulin protein superfamily of globular proteins, or one of the member proteins of that superfamily. %CE%B1- and %CE%B2-tubulins polymerize into microtubules, a major component of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/AJhUUjRzccfwEE6bEP9okqZJnkzqkvcqrmNAWfdBk2bHJzHzrxXaQth13pZ8Uie.png)%0A %0A%3EThe eukaryotic cytoskeleton. Actin filaments are shown in red, and microtubules composed of beta tubulin are in green.%0A%3E%0A%3E- Blue: nucleus stained with DAPI **%5Bfluorescent stain that binds strongly to adenine-thymine-rich regions in DNA%5D**%0A%3E-Green: Tubulin (microtubles) stained with antibody Bodipy FL goat anti-mouse IgG (Indirect fluorescent antibody stain)%0A%3E- Red: F-Actin stained with Texas Red X-Phalloidin%0A%3E%0A%3EFluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. %0A%3E%0A%3EImmunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody. Representing approximately 75%25 of serum antibodies in humans, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in blood circulation.%0A%3E%0A%3ESerum is the fluid and solute component of blood which does not play a role in clotting.%5B1%5D It may be defined as blood plasma without the clotting factors, or as blood with all cells and clotting factors removed.%0A%3E%0A%3EBlood plasma is a yellowish liquid component of blood that holds the blood cells, proteins and other constituents of whole blood in suspension. It makes up about 55%25 of the body's total blood volume.%0A%3E%0A%3ECoagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. %0A%3E%0A%3E**(8)** Smooth endoplasmic reticulum **%5BSER, functions in synthesis of certain lipids such as cholesterol, does not contain ribosomes, produces steroid hormones, detoxification%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23tmavp2KrG9YggvfVGom1YRAaQcmqcQwrr86RT4Veh9Jq4cbH1B2Fb7tCURAkTGZQ2FV.png)%0A %0A%3EElectron micrograph showing smooth ER (arrow) in mouse tissue, at 110,510%C3%97 magnification.%0A%0A%3E**(9)** Mitochondrion **%5Bgenerate most of the cell%E2%80%99s supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for chemical energy, has its own genome (mitogenome)%5D**%0A%3E%0A%3EChemical energy is the energy of chemical substances **%5Bheld in chemical bonds%5D** that is released when they undergo a chemical reaction and transform into other substances.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/Eoc7wxGJhS1ZGqCLPJ6jpPes1Y15845JYCg7QPfPcvahgeJS2iimy3S2A2QFnDiKZjJ.png)%0A %0A%3ETwo mitochondria from mammalian lung tissue displaying their matrix and membranes as shown by electron microscopy%0A%3E%0A%3EMammals (from Latin mamma, 'breast') are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia and characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. %0A%3E%0A%3EA mammary gland is an exocrine gland in humans and other mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring.%0A%3E%0A%3EA gland is a group of cells%5B1%5D in an animal's body that synthesizes substances (such as hormones) for release into the bloodstream (endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland).%0A%3E%0A%3E**(10)** Vacuole **%5Bmembrane-bound organelle filled mainly with water containing inorganic and organic molecules such as enzymes in solution, and certain cases includes solids which have been engulfed%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/EpXNPZVNh3XEvr58QWvPmin3kLvbfp124taryi3pKLiAB6GRmaYCZwk2Ga8EpUDkyyD.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-9/cells-as-the-basic-units-of-life/01-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-life):** This is a micrograph of a plant cell. Can you see the clear, white organelles, which are the vacuoles? The cytoplasm appears very granular in this image.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(11)** Cytosol **%5BCrowded solution of many different types of molecules dissolved in water that occupies up to 30%25 of the cytoplasm by volume%5D**%0A%3E%0A%3E%5Bhttps://youtu.be/TptsLsxc2lQ%5D(https://youtu.be/TptsLsxc2lQ%0A)%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/246GKXSGjXysQq1CteYtM7nDKtVw1vHyXTvXh67vKQmeEn4reTcWbXfyYvw3fiRkHYQgV.png)%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/2432cy59hiEUnsSgdKAePYJBgpAJiX7JXJkUToojExpidKoG26xjdsYGnFoMDQraG2dS3.png)%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23tm9M57eFd21dsCNCri72ipLFS5kT6fGdUsPnATHoRnhLRgyXRCz6XydbWvi7gNwFsgR.png)%0A%0A%3EPicture of cytosol, showing microtubules (light blue), actin filaments (dark blue), ribosomes (yellow and purple), soluble proteins (light blue), kinesin (red) **%5Bprotein that can move along the cytoplasm of animal cells%5D**, small molecules (white) and RNA (pink).%0A%3E%0A%3E**(12)** Lysosome **%5Bmembrane-bound spherical organelle that contains enzymes that can break down many kinds of biomolecules%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23vsZ9s6uPxPFBRvPv6MuB8eHe6jVXBefJbT6PAJzH4gnNz2QznDq5o2eqHVM8tJsDJqF.png)%0A %0A%3ETEM views of various vesicular compartments. Lysosomes are denoted by %22Ly%22. They are dyed dark due to their acidity; in the center of the top image, a Golgi Apparatus can be seen, distal from the cell membrane relative to the lysosomes.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe terms proximal (from Latin proximus 'nearest') and distal (from Latin distare 'to stand away from') are used to describe parts of a feature that are close to or distant from the main mass of the body, respectively.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23viTTuRgV1TRy65hzfoAJZuLxS2yRy821NFdtkAcpJ1p1DLoZWM93uGJFEjrgsfNmcC9.png)%0A %0A%3EAnatomical directional reference **%5Bcaudal is from Latin caudum; tail%5D**%0A%3E%0A%3EAnatomy (Greek anatom%C4%93, 'dissection') is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.%0A%3E%0A%3E**(13)** Centriole **%5Bcylindrical organelle composed mainly of a protein called tubulin, typically made up of 9 sets of short microtubule triplets%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23yJiMfVgZSzUoUT3pCUamqo4UJjrgNRMswp48dB7u9hnfnTvmmzwF386fSL19iwMFgUn.png)%0A %0A%3EThe structure of the centrosome%0A%3E%0A%3EThe centrosome (Latin centrum 'center' + Greek s%C5%8Dma 'body') (also called cytocenter%5B1%5D) is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell, as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. The centrosome provides structure for the cell. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles arranged at right angles to each other, and surrounded by a dense, highly structured%5B8%5D mass of protein termed the pericentriolar material (PCM).%0A%3E%0A%3EThe microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) is a structure found in eukaryotic cells from which microtubules emerge.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23zSSgKCsPxgNcXZSjEeaSWJouxHgEKT9eitZ2vCEACKZU8VquBFa5ipYvvrQhWd1Vaf3.png)%0A %0A%3EA mother and daughter centriole, attached orthogonally%0A%3E%0A%3EBefore DNA replication, cells contain two centrioles, an older mother centriole, and a younger daughter centriole. During cell division, a new centriole grows at the proximal end of both mother and daughter centrioles. After duplication, the two centriole pairs (the freshly assembled centriole is now a daughter centriole in each pair) will remain attached to each other orthogonally until mitosis. At that point the mother and daughter centrioles separate dependently on an enzyme called separase.%5B28%5D The two centrioles in the centrosome are tied to one another. The mother centriole has radiating appendages at the distal end of its long axis and is attached to its daughter at the proximal end. Each daughter cell formed after cell division will inherit one of these pairs. Centrioles start duplicating when DNA replicates.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xLL8gZemPyiKB577K1BTVXkAtXkF6r5gfRHhUu2CkhCHAjttFgtmcwELSS3oF4jERkE.png)%0A %0A%3EMitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.%0A%3E%0A%3EDNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23wgm8VHs2Qu8np5rRumiATBGebYKGYvCG5Sz8EUosgZ8FgrYPUCXUoWynb9BXtcQTzgy.png)%0A %0A%3EDNA replication: The double helix is un'zipped' and unwound, then each separated strand (turquoise) acts as a template for replicating a new partner strand (green). Nucleotides (bases) are matched to synthesize the new partner strands into two new double helices.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) and some of its organelles, and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm and other components into two daughter cells in a process called cell division.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/EonrHfNQ6rV3CTWSeGfZHmiEDuBk3yCTgY9UX3oor8dUj7YLk1u8k68hw8okX3wyWWk.png)%0A %0A%3ELife cycle of the cell%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23uFY5b9neGGMjH7DAVXxxzPwq93MsU4u14u5aBVAxb7M5co6vDbPLJmmo85RKGBxkgWq.png)%0A %0A%3ECentrosome (shown by arrow) next to nucleus%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23tmUm4EXz1aAcWmQ5pfqA57Xv4mJQtyWUN1jFpnCz25E2mjmXTuJCC9FfqaLnYuMDfhS.png)%0A %0A%3EElectron micrograph of a centriole from a mouse embryo.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/48TLFwp7UabWJKMpSdxJkWxKPNXfHGnWjD7pZCrCUdpJ6RYrV5LtfDaH5UyGUDw6Wa.png)%0A %0A%3E3D rendering of centrioles%0A%3E%0A%3E**(14)** Cell Membrane **%5Bseparates and protects the interior of the cell from the outside environment; also known as plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xAwUTdV7g58qUMKFsnkWqyjH9h2P17ugWfuP9PFretasM7dCkw1AEjPtfyR8w7nQgfb.png)%0A %0A%3EIllustration of a Eukaryotic cell membrane%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23vsfemtRYbK23Efvfx8XGRkpQCfizPJQkL1ibupE3UgB2gKqCML1R9589KABmjwCzy7V.png)%0A %0A%3EA micrograph from a Transmission Electron Micrograph **%5Bsic%5D** showing a lipid vesicle. The two dark bands are the two leaflets **%5Bindividual units of the phospholipids; akin to leaflets of a leaf%5D** comprising the bilayer. Similar images taken in the 1950s and 1960s confirmed the bilayer nature of the cell membrane%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/242YBk3gddWPLR92PS3NpKBaje9v5UgnBWRJrTp1mpgqv4XXank9Bp7uBJ2yuG2J6TyyK.png)%0A %0A%3EPinnate **%5Bfeather-like arrangement%5D** leaf of an Acacia **%5Btype of plant%5D** with 10 leaflets%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xytHKntm999v7E8Ac6oNrvaJP9CrkxuWg99EtwRav55CsQGBN34CpegB69FGaZZPkge.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure 4-3%5D(https://www.nap.edu/read/21733/chapter/5#27):** Lipid bilayers in cells are asymmetric. In mammalian cells, the major lipids in the outer leaflet are sphingomyelin (SM), glycosphingolipid (GSL), phosphatidylcholine (PC), cholesterol, and some phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). The inner leaflet%E2%80%99s major lipids are PE, phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylinositol (PI), cholesterol, and some PC. SOURCE: London (2014). Reproduced with permission from Erwin London. **%5BExofacial means facing away from a cell%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23x1HnUVMkekeTind9vkaEE3Btncnf1KJNvmN19yWbGfoBQS5DfERHEobzN5FBXvqyY3A.png)%0A%0A%3E**%5BFigure 2%5D(https://advanced-microscopy.utah.edu/education/electron-micro/):** A neuromuscular junction **%5Btype of synapse%5D** in C. elegans **%5Btiny 1 mm long transparent worm%5D**. The lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane is less than 5nm but the individual leaflets of the bilayer can be resolved. (photo Shigeki Watanabe and Erik Jorgensen)%0A%0AWithin the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.%5B46%5D In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called organelles that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. These organelles include the cell nucleus, which contains a cell's genetic information, or mitochondria, which generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by lysosomes, another specialized organelle. %0A%0APlant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall, chloroplasts, and vacuole.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/Eq7Ri4RtmJFPzfnET1RpU12pnBQJfaLmGhrZBiZN4cubewSjHx68xxJxGzdVZNzKXix.png)%0A %0AStructure of a plant cell%0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** Most mature plant cells have one large vacuole that typically occupies more than 30%25 of the cell's volume, and that can occupy as much as 80%25 of the volume for certain cell types and conditions.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe fluid in the vacuole is called the cell sap and serves as storage of materials and provides mechanical support to the cell.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe tonoplast is the vacuole membrane.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23vsb3EujGvoMLv4ioCq9JrdZgRH3YKMRtaM7gbq9oLjkpR2iNG3VN41Ak9N4pLjNc72B.png)%0A %0A%3EThe anthocyanin-storing vacuoles **%5Bvacuoles containing water-soluble pigments%5D** of Rhoeo spathacea, a spiderwort **%5Ba type of wildflower%5D**%0A%3E%0A%3EA pigment is a colored material that is completely or nearly insoluble in water.%5B1%5D In contrast, dyes are typically soluble, at least at some stage in their use.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/EoK7jXG79GgiKJMrtYQrJDEzrT9HPSaDxCVkFy6MjKmEtLcX1LdG8xQeAawTZ4LdjRi.png)%0A%3EPigments for sale at a market stall in Goa, India.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/Ep7zuUVbrnqSsmKUMtVG5yJMUZmUGMZQ2DxMLKpvp19VxencNtr3frR6gWoAWMazane.png)%0A %0A%3EA wide variety of wavelengths (colors) encounter a pigment. This pigment absorbs red and green light, but reflects blue%E2%80%94creating the color blue.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xpPfsVc28FWCoonsVCiTmhdE7Wy2Dkdfw1x2RKsyJX54Xkdd8o3HLBJts3Z6J9uvrrW.png)%0A %0A%3ESunlight encounters Rosco R80 %22Primary Blue%22 pigment. The product of the source spectrum and the reflectance spectrum of the pigment results in the final spectrum, and the appearance of blue.%0A%3E%0A%3EWhite light is how the eye perceives many wavelengths at once.%0A%3E%0A%3EA cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell membrane.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xLDkxkd2W7AvQBLnjY4zneYHqG9AnW5jdc3CNQt4K1hSJCdCmVhZGK6iVcx6zowDvhb.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-identify-vacuole-from-a-microscopic-image-of-plant-cells)**%0A%3E%0A%3EPlants are mainly multicellular organisms, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/242DXLor8MJRVxkKgXxQoPoMqpF5kMhAMxkE7Qp153RnpGMXgsSTgR8iGbgL9b8JwHiPt.png)%0A %0A%3EThe hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks **%5Bcategorization ranks%5D**. A kingdom contains one or more phyla. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/EpR1ePXMM1eGRCoxmxMbb4472RLHbRiSCfcxBgZaVRKajJW5ptH4uQSBSxcXCgshVkC.png)%0A %0A%3EThe major ranks: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, applied to the red fox, Vulpes vulpes.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xpPpxsogFErUjuyYzTf3JuD7TypBkZpRJwcnTgK1nBePJgVki4mSvGqCibdMg73tE5K.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure 3%5D(https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/class):** Taxonomy of Humans. Source: Biology Online.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23x1WAKHbHhknFSSbVBF8yWE7YpwFxrjAYWnBWndvCexFNHvxVinW8FjdDVMkiUqsMsHB.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://bhavanajagat.com/2014/06/19/spirituality-science-the-human-species/) %5Btypo: should be %E2%80%9Chigh forehead%E2%80%9D%5D**%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xyouiiD4V1L7LDLVMBc1ujuTfLAidJ4ySTLfTQLYAoW8ADuv16vmcxZigRb1BQbGycG.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://carnivorousplantresource.com/carnivorous-plant-taxonomy/)**%0A%3E%0A%3EPhotosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that, through cellular respiration **%5Breactions and processes in breaking down nutrients into ATP and then releasing waste products%5D**, can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities.%0A%3E%0A%3EChloroplasts are organelles that conduct photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water in plant and algal **%5Binformal term for a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms that typically live underwater%5D** cells. %0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/Eo6HWfibM77Frh2Rci3bEEca1tpEbwarTu4rRDwuHfhrTzaHWdiQ5RT4K1wbaBA4V4G.png)%0A %0A%3ESeen through a microscope, chlorophyll is concentrated within organisms in structures called chloroplasts %E2%80%93 shown here grouped inside plant cells.%0A%0A### Metabolism%0A%3EFurther information: %5BMetabolism%5D(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism) and %5BBioenergetics%5D(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioenergetics)%0A%0AAll cells require energy to sustain cellular processes. Energy is the capacity to do work, which, in thermodynamics, can be calculated using Gibbs free energy. %0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** In thermodynamics, work performed by a system is energy transferred by the system to its surroundings, by a mechanism through which the system can spontaneously exert macroscopic forces on its surroundings. In the surroundings, through suitable passive linkages, the work can lift a weight, for example. %0A%3E%0A%3E**MES Subtle Note:** Note the circular reasoning: Energy is the capacity to do work while work is the energy transferred by a system exerting forces on its surroundings.%0A%3E%0A%3EGibbs free energy or Gibbs energy is a measure of thermodynamic potential energy.%0A%3E%0A%3EThermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation, and physical properties of matter. Traditionally, thermodynamics has recognized three fundamental laws, simply named by an ordinal **%5Bcounting%5D** identification, the first law, the second law, and the third law.%5B1%5D%5B2%5D%5B3%5D A more fundamental statement was later labelled as the zeroth law, after the first three laws had been established.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe zeroth law of thermodynamics defines thermal equilibrium and forms a basis for the definition of temperature: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Two physical systems are in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of thermal energy between them when they are connected by a path permeable to heat.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe first law of thermodynamics states that, when energy passes into or out of a system (as work, heat, or matter), the system's internal energy changes in accord with the law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but can be neither created nor destroyed. For a thermodynamic process without transfer of matter, the first law is often formulated%5B1%5D%5Bnb 1%5D%0A%3E%0A%3E%E2%88%86U = Q %E2%80%93 W,%0A%3E %0A%3Ewhere U denotes the change in the internal energy of a closed system, Q denotes the quantity of energy supplied to the system as heat, and W denotes the amount of thermodynamic work done by the system on its surroundings.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe second law of thermodynamics states that in a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies **%5Bmeasure of disorder%5D** of the interacting thermodynamic systems never decreases. Another form of the statement is that heat does not spontaneously pass from a colder body to a warmer body.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe third law of thermodynamics states that a system's entropy approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero. With the exception of non-crystalline solids (glasses) the entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically close to zero.%0A%3E%0A%3EClassical thermodynamics considers three main kinds of thermodynamic processes: (1) changes in a system, (2) cycles in a system, and (3) flow processes.%0A%3E%0A%3EEntropy is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical property that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty.%0A%3E%0A%3EA crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.%0A%3E%0A%3EGlass is a non-crystalline **%5Bor amorphous%5D**, often transparent solid, that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. %0A%3E%0A%3EAbsolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as zero kelvins. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as %E2%88%92273.15 degrees on the Celsius scale (International System of Units),%5B1%5D%5B2%5D which equals %E2%88%92459.67 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units).%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23xpXmoUmk3ThcygEFrq3MZztcZj3cqAMYAWsNfs8pUNwbJZC7XhJ5Wwri7UtPzZNaGsJ.png)%0A %0A%3EZero kelvins (%E2%88%92273.15 %C2%B0C) is defined as absolute zero.%0A%3E%0A%3EEnthalpy is a property of a thermodynamic system, and is defined as the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe ideal gas law, also called the general gas equation, is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe ideal gas law is often written in an empirical form:%0A%3E%0A%3EPV = nRT%0A%3E%0A%3Ewhere P, V and R are the pressure, volume and temperature; n is the amount of substance; and R is the ideal gas constant **%5Brelates average kinetic energy of gas particles with temperature%5D**.%0A%3E%0A%3EZero-point energy (ZPE) is the lowest possible energy that a quantum mechanical system may have. Unlike in classical mechanics, quantum systems constantly fluctuate in their lowest energy state.%0A%0AAccording to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed. Hence, chemical reactions in a cell do not create new energy but are involved instead in the transformation and transfer of energy.%5B47%5D Nevertheless, all energy transfers lead to some loss of usable energy, which increases entropy (or state of disorder) as stated by the second law of thermodynamics. As a result, living organisms such as cells require continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy. In cells, energy can be transferred as electrons during redox (reduction%E2%80%93oxidation) reactions, stored in covalent bonds, and generated by the movement of ions (e.g., hydrogen, sodium, potassium) across a membrane.%0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** Redox (reduction%E2%80%93oxidation) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed.%0A%3E%0A%3EThe oxidation state, sometimes referred to as oxidation number, describes the degree of oxidation (loss of electrons) of an atom in a chemical compound. Conceptually, the oxidation state, which may be positive, negative or zero, is the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different elements were 100%25 ionic, with no covalent component. This is never exactly true for real bonds.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23tvwSLS9EyDgQ42RcFrKAGt3cdGoUj6oQFoQPDW6iEdn7VSwM3gU6geYFYjRsX4nTW5f.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://sciencenotes.org/how-to-assign-oxidation-numbers/):** The oxidation number of an element or neutral compound is zero. Otherwise, the total charge is ionic charge.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23uFuN43moN6iT6CWcfYUVZscLZrazcAHTimAb1KhanY81mi1ddojHN8MKiwnW7v7zPWg.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://www.compoundchem.com/2015/11/17/oxidation-states/)**%0A%3E%0A%3EOxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of certain atoms in a molecule.%0A%3E%0A%3EReduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of certain atoms in a molecule (a reduction in oxidation state).%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23vsqqGQSFsJSxCkNYwb8kKLj1tTVZwXJTUuWB7fQFD5tB9TBTnii9QKq3GTjFL9HSCP8.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure 11%5D(https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_%2528Analytical_Chemistry%2529/Electrochemistry/Redox_Chemistry/Oxidizing_and_Reducing_Agents):** A reducing agent reduces other substances and loses electrons; therefore, its oxidation state increases. An oxidizing agent oxidizes other substances and gains electrons; therefore, its oxidation state decreases.%0A%3E%0A%3E%3EGaining electrons = decreasing oxidation state.%0A%3E%3ELosing electrons = increasing oxidation state.%0A%3E%3E%0A%3E%3EA reducing agent increases oxidation state by losing electrons.%0A%3E%3EAn oxidatizing agent decreases oxidation state by gaining electrons.%0A%3E%0A%3EMany reactions in organic chemistry are redox reactions due to changes in oxidation states but without distinct electron transfer. For example, during the combustion of wood with molecular oxygen **%5BO%3Csub%3E2%3C/sub%3E%5D**, the oxidation state of carbon atoms in the wood increases and that of oxygen atoms decreases as carbon dioxide and water are formed. The oxygen atoms undergo reduction, formally gaining electrons, while the carbon atoms undergo oxidation, losing electrons. Thus oxygen is the oxidizing agent and carbon is the reducing agent in this reaction.%5B4%5D%0A%3E%0A%3ECombustion, or burning,%5B1%5D is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant **%5Boxidizing agent%5D**, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion does not always result in fire, because a flame is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vapourise, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction.%0A%3E%0A%3ESmoke is a collection of airborne particulates and gases%5B3%5D emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis **%5Bthermal decomposition without oxygen%5D**, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass.%0A%3E%0A%3EParticulates %E2%80%93 also known as atmospheric aerosol particles, atmospheric particulate matter, particulate matter (PM), or suspended particulate matter (SPM) %E2%80%93 are microscopic particles of solid or liquid matter suspended in the air. The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23wMnxLETtJRr6rQ4Y5D5TAaW8Lyxt8vWsD7wH7VNgDjfMsNHaxqqYR32e3yGhKHYhE3y.png)%0A %0A%3EThis diagram shows types, and size distribution in micrometres (%CE%BCm) **%5B0.001 mm%5D**, of atmospheric particulate matter.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/AKuwkUwCnM4hdZ6o5nJGwsGVoZurMHaoNMcHVMNPJ4iSgbL1tQ9FXGoD9jwaTN4.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(https://www.chemistrylearner.com/chemical-reactions/exothermic-reaction):** Exothermic **%5Benergy is released%5D** Reaction%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23uFwWW5gs62YqQ7iNAoSY9rnPvz125gXBHgyVQfZKEEuCHtd6NmQoM3pEJYXrr1sPkA1.png)%0A %0A%3E**%5BFigure%5D(http://forestchemistry.weebly.com/unit-9-electrochemistry.html):** Combustion of methane gas.%0A%3E%0A%3E%3ECarbon: Oxidation state increases; loses more electrons.%0A%3E%3EOxygen: Oxidation state decreases, gains more electrons.%0A%3E%3E%0A%3E%3EO increases C%E2%80%99s oxidation state.%0A%3E%3EC decreases O%E2%80%99s oxidation state.%0A%3E%3E%0A%3E%3EC is a reducer.%0A%3E%3EO is an oxidizer.%0A%3E%0A%3EAlthough oxidation reactions are commonly associated with the formation of oxides **%5Bcontains at least one oxygen atom and one other element%5D** from oxygen molecules, oxygen is not necessarily included in such reactions, as other chemical species can serve the same function. %0A%3E%0A%3ERedox reactions can occur relatively slowly, as in the formation of rust **%5Biron (Fe) oxide%5D**, or much more rapidly, as in the case of burning fuel.%0A%3E%0A%3ERust is an iron oxide, a usually reddish-brown oxide formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the catalytic presence of water or air moisture.%0A%3E%0A%3EIron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen.%0A%3E%0A%3EOxygen is the quintessential **%5Bperfect example%5D** oxidizer.%0A%0AMetabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes **%5Btoxic remains that can%E2%80%99t be further used by the organism%5D**. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic %E2%80%93 the breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic %E2%80%93 the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.%0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** Pyruvic acid (CH%3Csub%3E3%3C/sub%3ECOCOOH) is the simplest of the alpha-keto acids, with a carboxylic acid and a ketone functional group. Pyruvate, the conjugate base, CH%3Csub%3E3%3C/sub%3ECOCOO%3Csup%3E%E2%88%92%3C/sup%3E, is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways throughout the cell.%0A%3E%0A%3EA ketone is a functional group with the structure R%3Csub%3E2%3C/sub%3EC=O, where R can be a variety of carbon-containing substituents.%0A%3E%0A%3EA metabolic pathway is a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.%0A%0A!%5Bimage.png%5D(https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/mes/23tmm5sE3ngsPoQufYabf2dztr3fbJxE3TLD2EVLMr4Gi5W6j9Mm4BXE634vb79cTVi8m.png)%0A %0AExample of an enzyme-catalysed exothermic reaction%0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that must be provided for compounds to result in a chemical reaction. For a chemical reaction to proceed at a reasonable rate, the temperature of the system should be high enough such that there exists an appreciable number of molecules with translational energy equal to or greater than the activation energy.%0A%0AThe chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts %E2%80%93 they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it %E2%80%93 by reducing the amount of activation energy needed to convert reactants into products. Enzymes also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.%0A%0A%3E**MES Note:** Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In food production, it may more broadly refer to any process in which the activity of microorganisms brings about a desirable change to a foodstuff or beverage.%5B1%5D The science of fermentation is known as zymology **%5Bfrom Greek %E2%80%9Cthe workings of fermentation%E2%80%9D%5D**.%0A%3E%0A%3ESome countries list a legal definition of food, often referring them with the word foodstuff.%0A%3E%0A%3EA substrate is typically the chemical species being observed in a chemical reaction, which reacts with a reagent to generate a product. %0A
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parent_permlink | hive-167922 |
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author | revisesociology |
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permlink | on-having-the-right-tools-for-the-job |
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title | "On having the right tools for the job...!" |
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body | "I recently got sidetracked into taking down the fence surrounding the once was veg plot in the lower field of my land....
![20220511_110309.jpg](https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/revisesociology/EpQwjU4DE37oXaZSrhSojazE6LBWpYMSwqaoQVfYrpAck3djSMim8Lm7kUnyva53CFE.jpg)
This wasn't an urgent task, but it just got the point where that damned fence, in various stages of disrepair, was getting more and more irritating both aesthetically and practically because it's so much harder strimming up to the edges of the fence (eight edges if you think about it) rather than it just not being there.
So I decided it just had to come down before I strim again....
This meant cutting through the three small pieces of wire on each post that had been used to secure (or in some cases 'secure') the fence to said posts.
![20220511_110333.jpg](https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/revisesociology/23wCLbTTjCgx8PuYqJw3oQ4S4k4yXijvGDk7X1ucfzZdbSeT5fazQJaXskYuJtaqTHrtM.jpg)
And there were a lot of posts...Probably around 60 in all - so that was 180 snips in total.
As I said above, I got sidetracked into this - I just sort of decided one afternoon last week I wanted to start on it, and so initially started using the cutters on the pliers I had to hand.
This was fine on the more loosely tied wires - either because of age loosening them or because of initial slackness, I could easily get the pliers right the way into the base for cutting, but on the tighter (better!) connections this was an effort and this meant spending quite some time forcing the pliers through the make the cut.
Eventually I gave up, after about 6 posts, settling for having done something and resolved to buy some proper wire cutters, and the next morning I evolved to using these....
![20220511_110157.jpg](https://files.peakd.com/file/peakd-hive/revisesociology/EouB8R49Nprt2Bts3jJpwV1gHWfdYp3m4qncEuaw7PDe4q6kE8xR7u6wRtBY28PYhAo.jpg)
The difference was AMAZING - I mean I sort of knew it would be, using a tool specifically designed for a task JUST LIKE THIS - snipping fencing wire!
With this tool it just made it easier to get a corner into the tiniest gap on on tightest wires and snip, snip, snip, less than one minute per post (I still had to contend with pulling the fencing and post out of the tall grass in places, and the bottom wire could be difficult to see).
It also cam in handy for cutting the actual fencing - where it was wrapped around the last post it just wasn't worth saving the last little bits at each end.
### Made my money back already on this tool...
These wire cutters cost me 12 EU, which I personally think is a real bargain for some nice ergonomic wire cutters - they cut through relatively thick wire no problemo (2MM easy) have a large head but with corners that make it easy to get into tight areas and cushioned handle on relatively long arms, with great leverage.
The difference in time using these compared to my pliers was at least ONE HOUR - and factoring in an hourly rate of, well, say 12 EU, I've already made my money back in time terms!
### Final thoughts...
Don't start a job until you have the right tools!
If you do so you're just wasting your time!
Posted Using [LeoFinance <sup>Beta</sup>](https://leofinance.io/@revisesociology/on-having-the-right-tools-for-the-job)" |
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json | {"items":["86a09c8ea2ce68914ebf0e3887197fb8bfd01330-116"],"days":2,"currency":"DEC","player":"sieunhan828","market":"peakmonsters","app":"peakmonsters"} |
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json | {"items":["d2431a78a838fe5264f1ba995310375a07852534-120"],"days":2,"currency":"DEC","limit_price":0.1,"player":"sieunhan705","market":"peakmonsters","app":"peakmonsters"} |
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json | {"contractName":"market","contractAction":"cancel","contractPayload":{"type":"buy","id":"ca8f7d69445e07cb21aeda783a6a4e09c9873fa0"}} |
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id | sm_claim_reward |
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json | {"type":"quest","quest_id":"aa60580c1c8a3935e675c53ae535e5a7071f612d","app":"splinterlands/0.7.220317"} |
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json | {"to":"ninhspl2049","qty":87,"token":"DEC","type":"withdraw","memo":"ninhspl2049","app":"splinterlands/0.7.139"} |
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id | sm_purchase |
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json | {"type":"chaos_pack","qty":5,"currency":"CREDITS","app":"splinterlands/0.7.220517","n":"pPKLQozBdh"} |
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id | sm_gift_cards |
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json | {"to":"pupil368279","cards":["C3-334-EZR9R1B17K"]} |
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